david pritchard. bibliography.

Keyword: "parking"

[1] L.A. Alexander. Better downtown parking: Increasing the supply and managing it better. Technical report, Downtown Research & Development Center, New York City, NY, USA, 1987. [ bib ]
This publication presents guidelines for improving downtown parking. It explains how to “think right” about downtown parking; how to “plan a total parking system” that meets all needs; how to get the “right amount of parking” and how to define your downtown “parking goals” and shape “parking plans” to reach them. In addition, this report aims to alert downtowners to essential “new ideas and concepts” such as efficient shared-parking, standards for calculating demand, organizing free parking districts, etc. Another basic idea covered relates to “making all parking more productive” by parking system management. Other topics covered include relationship to transit, handling heavy employee parking loads, metering or not metering, and the “ideal” parking system.

Keywords: parking, transportation demand management
[2] Simon P. Anderson and André de Palma. The economics of pricing parking. Journal of Urban Economics, 55(1):1-20, 2004. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, urban economics
[3] Richard Arnott. The economic theory of urban traffic congestion: A microscopic research agenda. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Environmental Economics and the Economics of Congestion, Venice, Italy, July 2001. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: urban economics, transport planning, congestion pricing, parking
[4] Richard Arnott, Tilmann Rave, and Ronnie Schob. Alleviating Urban Traffic Congestion. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 2005. [ bib ]
Apparently contains a fairly positive view of cycling, from a group of economists.
Keywords: congestion pricing, transport planning, urban economics, bicycle planning, parking
[5] Kay W. Axhausen and J.W. Polak. Choice of parking: stated preference approach. Transportation, 18(1):59-81, 19991. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[6] R. Bain. Improving the quality of city centre parking: will the consumer pay? Traffic Engineering and Control, 43(5):175-179, 2002. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[7] David Banister. Congestion: market pricing for parking. Built Environment, 15(3/4):251-256, 1989. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, congestion pricing
[8] J. Bates, A. Skinner, G. Scholefield, and R. Bradley. Study of parking and traffic demand: II. a demand Traffic Restraint Analysis Model (TRAM). Traffic Engineering and Control, 38(3):135-141, March 1997. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[9] Kiran U. Bhatta and Thomas J. Higgins. Road and parking pricing: Issues and research needs. Transportation Research Record, 1346:68-73, 1992. [ bib ]
Keywords: congestion pricing, parking
[10] J. Blake. Car parking bombshell. Town and Country Planning, 68(2), February 1999. [ bib ]
Apparently about the DETR report on parking standards for the southeast.
Keywords: parking
[11] Shaun Boney. Car parks: good, bad or just ugly? Town and Country Planning, 65(6), December 1996. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[12] S.A. Brown and Thomas A. Lambe. Parking prices in the Central Business District. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, 6:133-144, 1972. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, canada
[13] Edward Calthrop. Evaluating on-street parking policy. Working Paper 2002-03, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 2002. [ bib | .pdf ]
This paper uses a formal model to examine the welfare gains from a marginal increase in the price of on-street parking. The benefits of such a policy are shown to depend on the improvement in search externalities in the on-street parking market itself, plus effects on other distorted urban transport markets, including congested freeway and backroad use, mass-transit and off-street parking. The paper makes two further contributions. The model is sufficiently general that several well-known results from the parking literature emerge as special cases. The model is used to review the existing literature and highlights findings in separate parts of literature. Finally, a numerical simulation model is used to investigate the order of magnitude of an optimal urban parking fee. In particular, these results confirm the importance of taking into accounts effects on other distorted transport markets when deciding upon the level of the price for on-street parking. The model confirms that while parking pricing reform may lead to substantial improvements in parking search times, there is little overall impact on road congestion levels.

Keywords: urban economics, congestion pricing, parking
[14] Edward Calthrop and Stef Proost. Regulating on-street parking. Working Paper 2002-02, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 2002. [ bib | .pdf ]
Consider the choices available to a shopper driving to a city and trying to park downtown. One option, typical to many cities, is to follow the signposts to an off-street parking facility, which is often privately operated. Another option is to search for an on-street spot. If this proves unsuccessful, it is always possible to return to the off-street facility. We formalise such a setting and examine optimal on-street parking policy in the presence of an off-street market. Not surprisingly, the amount of socially-wasteful searching behaviour is shown to depend on the prices of both the off- and on-street market. If the off-street market is run competitively, optimal on-street policy reduces to a simple and attractive rule: set the on-street price equal to the resource cost of off-street parking supply. Other pricing rules result in either excessive searching behaviour or excessive off-street investment costs. Time restrictions - a common alternative to on-street fees - are also shown to be inefficient. In practice, however, off-street markets are unlikely to be competitive. We examine the case of a single off-street supplier playing as a Stackelberg follower to the government regulated on-street market. Based on a numerical example (calibrated to London), optimal on-street policy is shown to either involve setting a relatively high on-street price, such that the monopolist is induced to undercut and gain the entire parking demand, or setting a relatively low price, while the monopolist maximises profit on the residual demand curve. Which strategy is optimal is shown to be parameter dependent.

Keywords: urban economics, congestion pricing, parking
[15] Edward Calthrop and Stef Proost. Regulating on-street parking. Working Paper 2004-10, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 2004. [ bib | .PDF ]
Consider a shopper or tourist driving downtown and trying to park. Two strategies are usually available: either park at a private off-street facility or search for a cheaper on-street spot. We formalise such a setting and use the model to study optimal government regulation of the on-street parking market. It is shown that the optimal on-street fee equals the marginal cost of off-street supply at the optimal quantity. If the off-street market is supplied under constant returns to scale, this provides a particular simple operational rule: the price on street should match that off street. We also extend the model to consider maximum length of stay restrictions and non-competitive private supply. A numerical model, calibrated to central London, investigates the magnitude of an optimal fee.

Keywords: urban economics, congestion pricing, parking
[16] Edward Calthrop, Stef Proost, and Kurt van Dender. Parking policies and road pricing. Urban Policy, 37(1):63-76, 2000. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, congestion pricing
[17] Jeffrey J. Cantos. Parking strategies and affordable housing: An efficient and equitable approach. Technical report, School of Planning, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada, 2004. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: canada, parking
[18] Mark Childs. Parking Spaces: A Design, Implementation and Use Manual for Architects, Planners and Engineers. McGraw Hill, 1998. [ bib ]
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[19] City of Vancouver. Parking by-law. By-law 6059, City of Vancouver, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 2004. [ bib | http ]
Keywords: parking, zoning, canada
[20] P. Clarke et al. The use of stated preference techniques to investigate likely responses to changes in workplace parking supply. Traffic Engineering and Control, 34(7/8):350-354, 1993. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[21] Nigel Coates. Parking policy and bicycle promotion in Oxford. In Proceedings of Velo-City 1997, Barcelona, Spain, September 1997. [ bib ]
Keywords: bicycle planning, parking
[22] Colliers International. North American CBD parking rate survey. Technical report, Colliers International, 2004. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: parking, transport planning, data
[23] D. Coombe, P. Guest, J. Bates, and P. le Masurier. Study of parking and traffic demand: I. the research programme. Traffic Engineering and Control, 38(2), February 1997. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[24] Martin Dale and Richard Smith. Estimating London's parking space capacity. Traffic Engineering and Control, 41(8):325-328, September 2001. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[25] Danish Road Directorate. Collection of cycle concepts. Technical report, Danish Road Directorate, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2000. [ bib | .pdf ]
Promotion of more and safer bicycle traffic produces healthier road users and helps to create better towns. Collection of Cycle Concepts presents some ideas on how to increase the use of bicycles and how to prevent bicycle accidents.

The growth in car traffic is creating environmental problems and congestion. Compared to other countries in Europe traffic problems in Denmark are still modest. An important explanation for this is the development in the course of the last century of a robust bicycle culture. Today, one trip out of five in Denmark is by bicycle.

The future role of the bicycle must also be strong in order to create a sustainable society. It is important to develop and infrastructure that permits the optimal exploitation of the bicycle's qualities and possibilities.

A larger share of the short trips in towns can take place by bicycle. The car is often indispensable on longer trips. The bicycle can not be alone. Intermodality is important. The right balance of good roads and paths for pedestrians, cyclists and motorists can create better towns without losing the interaction between modes of transport.

The bicycle can more often be used as feeder traffic for coach, bus, train and plane on longer trips. This calls for safe an functional access roads and terminals with good possibilities for interchanges.

Not only road administrations, but also companies, institutions, schools associations ets, must contribute to changing our attitudes to transport and making it more acceptable to cycle. The individual advantages are big. Half an hour's cycling daily increases our mean life expectancy by 1-2 years and gives better quality of life, both physically and mentally.

There are many measures that can be taken to improve cyclist safety. In spite of this, the accident risk for Danish cyclists has not changed over the past 25 years. It is necessary to approach the problem more systematically and introduce proposed solutions and places and among target groups where they will have the greatest impact.

The main challenge is promoting more and safer bicycle traffic is the need to implement a wide range of measures simultaneously. I therefore invite the reader to consider the many ideas contained in Collection of Cycle Concepts-and be inspired of those ideas, which apply to local conditions.

This is probably the best bicycle planning guide I've run into so far. Throroughly recommended for anyone interested in these issues, and for anyone already involved in bicycle planning or advocacy.

Some of the good stuff: route sweeping, every 2-8 weeks, plus extra autumn service to deal with leaves and a special service for weekends to deal with broken glass near nightlife zones (p. 123); “cycle crossings,” where pavement markings are extended through an intersection to reduce conflicts with turning motor vehicles (p. 89); advanced stop lines; cute advertisements (p. 37); signage (pp. 102-105); effect of distance on mode choice (p. 46); discussion of the need for small shops (p. 46); graph showing how age affects cycling speed and distance (p. 12); wheel ramp on stairs (p. 95); bike parking maps (p. 108), with symbols for covered/uncovered and number of spaces.

Keywords: bicycle planning, bike box, pavement colouring, bicycle segregation, bicycle parking, bicycle collisions, traffic calming
[26] Allison L.C. de Cerreño. Dynamics of on-street parking in large central cities. Technical report, Wagner Rudin Center for Transportation Policy & Management, New York University, New York City, NY, USA, 2002. [ bib | .pdf ]
Funded by the Federal Highway Administration, the purpose of this report is three-fold: (1) to determine, to the degree possible, the impact that on-street parking has on transportation, development, and land-use; (2) to identify and review comprehensively “on-street” parking policies and management practices in large cities; and, (3) to recommend best practice strategies for on-street parking in large cities. The report is the culmination of a year-long study, which included an extensive literature review, one-on-one discussions with city parking officials, a peer-to-peer exchange session in Boston, and a detailed questionnaire to which nine U.S. cities responded.

Keywords: parking
[27] Allison L.C. de Cerreño. Dynamics of on-street parking in large central cities. Transportation Research Record, 1898:130-137, 2004. [ bib ]
Not too relevant from a sustainable transportation perspective. The bulk of the paper addresses the mechanics of parking management (metering technology, loading regulations, etc.) rather than the bigger issues of choosing appropriate prices, balancing on-street and off-street parking, encouraging quick turnover short-term parking, or residential permit systems.
Keywords: parking, streets
[28] Elizabeth Deakin, Ally Bechtel, Amber Crabbe, Mary Archer, Shannon Cairns, Andrew Kluter, Kamshing Leung, and Jason Ni. Parking management and downtown land development in Berkeley, California. Transportation Research Record, 1898:124-129, 2004. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[29] John F. DiRenzo, Bart Cima, and Edward Barber. Parking management tactics. Technical Report FHWA-PL-81-010, U.S. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., USA, 1981. [ bib |

detailed annotation

 ]
Keywords: parking
[30] J.R. Elliot and C.C. Wright. The collapse of parking enforcement in large towns: some causes and solutions. Traffic Engineering and Control, 23(6):304-310, June 1982. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[31] Energy Pathways, Inc. Condominium parking standards in Mississauga. Technical report, Canadian Mortgage and Housing Association, Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1994. [ bib ]
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[32] M. Enoch. UK parking cash out experience, and lessons from California. Traffic Engineering and Control, 48(5):184-187, 2002. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[33] European Parking Association. EPA urban parking policy guide: Statement for COST 342. Technical report, European Co-operation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research (COST), Cologne, Germany, 2002. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: parking
[34] B.P. Feeney. A review of the impact of parking policy measures on travel demand. VTI Rapport 308A, Swedish Road and Traffic Research Institute, Linkoping, Sweden, 1986. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, transport planning
[35] B.P. Feeney. A review of the impact of parking policy measures on travel demand. Transportation Planning and Technology, 13:229-234, 1989. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[36] Eran Feitelson and Orit Rotem. The case for taxing surface parking. Transportation Research D, 9(4):319-333, 2004. [ bib ]
Surface parking generates multiple externalities. If left to the market the supply of parking is likely to be suboptimal. But parking requirements ignore most of the externalities. This paper suggests that a tax approach may be a more efficient method to internalize the externalities associated with parking provision, thereby assuring an optimal supply of parking. However, in practice it is infeasible to value all externalities in monetary terms and to set such a tax. Hence, a suboptimal flat surface parking tax is advanced. In addition to its contribution to the reduction of externalities from land cover, this tax is likely to have several noteworthy positive attributes. It is simple to assess. It will provide an incentive for intensifying the use of parking. It may also increase the attractiveness of providing underground parking relative to surface parking, thereby reducing the attractiveness of suburban retail centers relative to central cities. A discussion of implementation issues suggests that a surface parking tax may face relatively low transaction costs. These will be largely a function of the use of revenues. Hence, the use of revenues should be specified when such a tax is proposed.

Keywords: parking, transport planning
[37] Bay Area Economic Forum. Market-based solutions to the transportation crisis: Executive summary. Technical report, Bay Area Economic Forum, San Francisco, CA, USA, 1990. [ bib ]
Keywords: transportation demand management, parking
[38] D. Fukuda and S. Morichi. Incorporating aggregate behavior in an individual's discrete choice: An application to analyzing illegal bicycle parking behavior. Transportation Research A, 41(4):313-325, May 2007. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, bicycle planning
[39] David W. Gillen. Estimation and specification of the effects of parking costs on urban transport mode choice. Journal of Urban Economics, 4:186-199, 1977. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[40] David W. Gillen. Parking policy, parking location decisions and the distribution of congestion. Transportation, 7(1):69-86, 1978. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, transport planning
[41] J. Golias, G. Yannis, and M. Harvatis. Off-street parking choice sensitivity. Transportation Planning and Technology, 25(4):333-348, 2002. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[42] S. Gray, C. Vance, and M.P. Pickett. Special parking areas in London. Technical Report TRL-97-279, Transport Research Laboratory, London, UK, 1994. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[43] Patrick H. Hare. Making housing affordable by reducing second car ownership. Technical report, Patrick Hare Planning and Design, Washington, D.C., USA, April 1993. [ bib ]
Keywords: transport planning, equity, parking
[44] Patrick H. Hare. Planning, transportation, and the home economics of reduced car ownership; planning as if household budgets mattered. Technical report, Patrick Hare Planning and Design, Washington, D.C., USA, April 1995. [ bib ]
Keywords: transport planning, equity, parking
[45] S.L. Haworth and I.C. Hilton. Car parking standards and the urban economy. Traffic Engineering and Control, 23(11):537-542, November 1982. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[46] David A. Henser and J. King. Parking demand and responsiveness to supply, pricing and location in the Sydney central business district. Transportation Research A, 35(3):177-196, 2001. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[47] T. Higgins. Parking management and traffic mitigation in six cities: Implications for local policy. Transportation Research Record, 1232, 1989. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, transport planning
[48] Thomas Higgins. Parking taxes: effectiveness, legality and implementation. Transportation, 19:221-230, 1992. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, finance
[49] John Douglas Hunt and S. Tepley. A nested logit model of parking location choice. Transportation Research B, 27(4):253-266, 1993. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, canada
[50] William W. Hunter and J. Richard Stewart. An evaluation of bike lanes adjacent to motor vehicle parking. Technical report, Florida Department of Transportation, December 1999. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: bicycle planning, parking, pavement marking, streets
[51] Institute of Transportation Engineers. Parking generation. Technical report, Institute of Transportation Engineers, 2004. [ bib ]
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[52] John A. Jakle and Keith A. Sculle. Lots of Parking: Land Use in a Car Culture. University Press of Virginia, June 2004. [ bib ]
Keywords: urban planning, urban design, urban form, parking
[53] Massoud Javid and Prianka N. Seneviratne. Sizing parking facilities at airports. Journal of Advanced Transportation, 33(3):253-272, 1999. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[54] Wenya Jia and Martin Wachs. Parking and affordable housing. Access Magazine, 13:22-25, 1998. [ bib ]
Keywords: transport planning, equity, parking
[55] Wenya Jia and Martin Wachs. Parking and housing affordability: A case study of San Francisco. Research Paper 380, University of California Transportation Center, 1998. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: transport planning, equity, parking
[56] Wenya Jia and Martin Wachs. Parking and housing affordability: A case study of San Francisco. Transportation Research Record, 1685:156-160, 1999. [ bib ]
Keywords: transport planning, equity, parking
[57] D. Kulash. Parking taxes as roadway prices: A case study of the San Francisco experience. Paper 1212-9, The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C., USA, 1974. [ bib ]
Keywords: congestion pricing, parking
[58] Richard J. Kuzmyak. Parking management and supply. Report 95, Transportation Cooperative Research Program, U.S. Federal Transit Administration, Washington, D.C., USA, 2003. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[59] Thomas Lambe. The choice of parking location by workers in the Central Business District. Traffic Quarterly, 23(3):397-411, 1967. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, canada
[60] Thomas Lambe. Driver choice of parking in the city. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, 30(3):207-219, 1996. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, canada
[61] Frank le Clercq and Luca Bertolini. Achieving sustainable accessibility: an evaluation of policy measures in the Amsterdam area. Built Environment, 29(1):36-47, 2003. [ bib | http ]
Some interesting thoughts. 1) Their “compact city” policy seems to have led to a polycentric region, with the edge regions (at the boundary of the dense inner city and the car-oriented outer world) developing into subcentres. Most of this is due to earlier policies of motorway expansion and subcentre promotion. However, public transport patronage has risen. 2) Public transport expansion has been less effective than changes in urban form. Expansion to new developments has not proven feasible, due to chicken-and-egg issues. 3) The a,b,c location policy aimed to force employers with large numbers of employees/visitors to take class A sites, defined as having good public transport facilities running in several directions, and with very strict parking place supply. Class B and C sites have softer parking regimes and siting requirements. It's a national policy. While it has been evaluated as a failure (mostly due to application to only 15% of all locations, since it only applies to new developments), it is continuing.
Keywords: urban planning, transport planning, parking, accessibility
[62] André Lemelin. Calcul de l'impact sur la circulation automobile d'une taxe sur le stationnement dans la grande région de Montréal. Inédits 2001-6, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique: Urbanisation, Culture et Société, Montréal, QC, Canada, November 2001. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: parking, canada
[63] André Lemelin, Pierre J. Hamel, and Alain Sterck. Étude sur la mise en place d'une taxe sur le stationnement dans la grande région de Montréal. Technical report, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique: Urbanisation, Culture et Société, Montréal, QC, Canada, 2000. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: parking, canada
[64] Nick Lester. On street parking regulation and enforcement in London. In EPA Urban parking Policy Guide: Statement for COST 342. European Co-operation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research (COST), Cologne, Germany, 2002. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: parking
[65] H.S. Levinson. Parking in a changing time. Technical report, Eno Foundation for Transportation, Westport, CT, USA, 1982. [ bib ]
Parking's broad influence over travel in the modern urban setting is discussed, including recent changes in urban priorities and transport policies created by contemporary concerns for environment, energy, and air pollution. Downtown parking issues and options are reviewed. They include questions related to how parking affects and is affected by many other factors, including community development, environemental concerns, transportation goals, existing parking facilities and street systems, urban and suburban transit stops and the like. The impacts of increasing or decreasing automobile access are depicted. Three basic city center types are identified and described: extensively transit-oriented, intermediate transit use, and predominantly automobile oriented. The basic problems posed by commuter parking are covered, as are options for dealing with them. Four options for downtown parking and transportation policy are presented: trend projection, maintain present auto-transit balance, all future growth by transit, and reduce the number of automobiles accumulated downtown. Air quality considerations are mentioned. Parking supply and demand can be adjusted by stabilizing downtown parking supply, revising parking rates to encourage short- term use, and implementing new zoning policies to limit parking. Each option is discussed. Urban parking policies require community participation. The groups and concerns involved are reviewed. Parking guidelines are suggested for major transit corridors. Recommendations are made on issues to be considered in forming parking policies and programs in the future.

Keywords: parking, transportation demand management, transport planning
[66] Todd A. Litman. Parking requirements impacts on housing affordability. Technical report, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Victoria, BC, Canada, June 2004. [ bib | .pdf ]
A very interesting read. Litman raises a number of issues associated with housing that I hadn't considered-my first reaction is to question Vancouver's downtown development patterns. Are parking requirements responsible for the tower fad, by making townhouse and four-story apartment development uneconomic for developers? On interesting bit of trivia: curb cuts reduce onstreet parking capacity. His parking management solutions are quite valuable and innovative ideas, and the studies he cites in Victoria and Mississauga are useful; I should follow up on all of his references. Of the management solutions, the two ideas I found novel were: shared parking, where apartments and businesses share spaces due to opposite peak demand times - very practical for residential downtowns; transportation management associations, where a neighbourhood organisation is formed to trade parking in a neighbourhood. I was initially convinced by his arguments about reducing developer incentive to create low-income housing, but I'm now a little skeptical; figure 12, in particular, says to me that in a scenario where 0 parking spaces are required, developers will have a huge incentive to produce high income housing, since the relative profit difference will be so much greater. Of course, this ignores the entire demand side of the equation. Overall, I think more analysis is needed to determine the real effect on developers.
Keywords: parking, urban planning, transportation demand management, equity
[67] Todd A. Litman. Online transportation demand management encylopedia. Technical report, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Victoria, BC, Canada, 2005. [ bib | http ]
Keywords: transportation demand management, bicycle planning, pedestrian planning, transit, urban form, parking, urban economics, finance, prioritisation, accessibility
[68] Michael Manville and Donald C. Shoup. People, parking and cities. Access Magazine, 25:20-26, 2004. [ bib | .pdf ]
A fascinating study of Los Angeles versus New York and San Francisco. When the entire urban agglomeration is taken into account, L.A. is actually denser than New York or San Francisco, since its suburbs are relatively dense. The article explains discusses how downtown parking in L.A. is profoundly different from the other two, and how it hurts the city.
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[69] Michael Manville and Donald C. Shoup. People, parking and cities. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 131(4):233-245, December 2005. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[70] Greg R. Marsden. The evidence base for parking policies-a review. Transport Policy, 13(6):447-457, 2006. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: parking
[71] Wesley E. Marshall and Norman W. Garrick. Parking at mixed-use centers in small cities. Transportation Research Record, 1977:164-171, 2006. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[72] M. Mehranian, Martin Wachs, Donald C. Shoup, and R. Platkin. Parking costs and mode choices among downtown workers: a case study. Transportation Research Record, 1130, 1987. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[73] Michael D. Meyer and M. McShane. Parking policy and downtown economic development. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 109:27-43, 1983. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, urban planning
[74] Gerard C.S. Mildner, James G. Strathman, and Martha J. Bianco. Travel and parking behavior in the United States. Discussion Paper DP96-7, Center for Urban Studies, Portland State University, December 1996. [ bib | .pdf ]
This paper looks at the connection between the regulation of parking by cities, transit service levels, and travel and parking behavior in the United States. Travel behavior information comes from the 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS) and the Federal Urban Mass Transportation Administration's 1990 Section 15 Report. Data on the current state of parking programs in place in central business districts of the U.S. is identifed through telephone interviews of local officials responsible for parking policies from the twenty cities identified in the NPTS. The travel behavior analyses and the data from the parking officials interviews were combined with data from the Federal Highway Administration's Journey-to-Work data to group cities according to their parking policies, transit service, and ridership levels on a continuum of “Transit- Accommodating Cities” and “Auto-Accommodating Cities”. A key finding is that cities with interventionist parking policies, high parking prices and limited supply, frequent transit service, and a high probability that travelers will pay to park are the most likely to have high transit ridership figures.

Keywords: parking
[75] Gerard C.S. Mildner, James G. Strathman, and Martha J. Bianco. Parking policies and commuting behavior. Transportation Quarterly, 51(1), 1997. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[76] A. Millard-Ball. Putting on their parking caps. Planning, pages 16-21, April 2002. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[77] Eric J. Miller. Central Area mode choice and parking demand. Transportation Research Record, 1413:60-69, 1993. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, canada, transportation demand management
[78] G. Miller and C. Everett. Raising commuter parking prices: An empirical study. Transportation, 11:105-129, 1982. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[79] J. Morrall and D. Bolger. Cost effectiveness through innovation. In Proceedings of the 1996 Transportation Assocation of Canada Annual Conference, Charlottetown, Canada, October 1996. [ bib ]
This paper was presented at the 'Cost-Effective Traffic Operations Through Innovation' session. The importance of parking policies as complementary policies to an overall urban transportation strategy has been acknowledged as a key component in influencing both transit use and ridesharing. The main focus of this article is the relationship between downtown long-stay parking supply and transit use, and the implications of this relationship for developing downtown parking policies. Based on a survey of Canadian cities, it was determined that peak hour transit modal split to downtown areas is inversely proportional to the ratio of long-stay parking stalls per downtown employee. The analysis indicated that this relationship is highly statistically significant for Canadian and American cities. The implication of the findings is that the main choice with respect to establishing a long-stay parking policy is directly linked to the modal split goal. Thus, policy makers should first establish a desirable and achievable modal split goal and then establish a long-stay parking strategy which would match the supply of long-stay parking with the modal split goal.

Keywords: parking, transportation demand management, canada
[80] J. Morrall and D. Bolger. The relationship between downtown parking supply and transit use. Institute of Transportation Engineers Journal, 66(2), 1996. [ bib ]
Parking policies can complement an overall urban transportation strategy by influencing both transit use and ridesharing. This article presents a study of the downtown parking supply and transportation policies of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, in relation to other Canadian cities. The focus of the study is the relationship between downtown parking supply and transit use. In a study survey, a strong relationship is found between peak-period modal split to public transit and the supply of downtown parking. Specifically, the proportion of downtown commuters using public transportation is inversely proportional to the ratio of parking stalls per downtown employee.

Keywords: parking, transportation demand management, canada
[81] Andrew Nash. Traffic calming in three European cities: Recent experience. In Proceedings of the 84th meeting of the Transportation Research Board, 2004. [ bib | .pdf ]
An interesting look at Munich, Vienna and Zurich. Their approaches to funding are similar to Vancouver's, but they've done some very innovative projects, including narrowing arterials while maintaining capacity, and extensive parking management plans.
Keywords: bicycle planning, pedestrian planning, parking, urban planning, traffic calming
[82] Amanda Nelson. Fear of parking. Town and Country Planning, 66(1), January 1997. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[83] Nelson/Nygaard Consulting. Housing shortage / parking surplus. Technical report, Transportation and Land Use Coalition, San Francisco, CA, USA, 2002. [ bib | .html ]
Keywords: urban planning, equity, parking
[84] René Neuenschwander, Silvia Strub, and David Kramer. Swiss overview (cost 342: Parking policy measures and their effects on mobility and the environment). Technical Report COST 342/18/CH, European Co-operation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research (COST), Bern, Switzerland, October 2000. [ bib | .pdf ]
Some interesting notes on the Swiss context. They've had the same difficulties as elesewhere-conflicts between state and city, business groups and environmental. The total number of spaces seems to be impossible to reduce, although the relative number can change slowly. One city tried to force shopping centres to charge for all parking, but backed down in the end.
Keywords: parking
[85] René Neuenschwander, Silvia Strub, and David Kramer. Swiss case studies (cost 342: Parking policy measures and their effects on mobility and the environment). Technical Report COST 342/18/CH, European Co-operation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research (COST), Bern, Switzerland, May 2001. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: parking
[86] J. Nicolson. Parking in town centres: the key to sustainability. Highways and Transportation, 42(11):16-18, 1995. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[87] Ian W.H. Parry and Antonio Bento. Estimating the welfare effect of congestion taxes: The critical importance of other distortions within the transport system. Journal of Urban Economics, 51(2):339-365, 2002. [ bib ]
Keywords: congestion pricing, parking, urban economics
[88] Zhongren Peng, Kenneth J. Dueker, and James G. Stratham. Residential location, employment location and commuter responses to parking charges. Transportation Research Record, 1556:109-118, 1997. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[89] Romain Petiot. Parking enforcement and travel demand management. Transport Policy, 11(4):399-411, 2004. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, transportation demand management
[90] André Porlier. Le stationnement comme outil de gestion des déplacements dans la région métropolitaine de montréal. Technical report, Conseil régional de l'environnement de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada, May 2001. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: parking, canada, transportation demand management
[91] Kent A. Robertson. Parking and pedestrians: Balancing two key elements in downtown development. Transportation Quarterly, 55(2):29-42, 2001. [ bib ]
Two important transportation goals for most American downtowns are to provide sufficient parking spaces to meet the demand of motorists and an attractive pedestrian-friendly environment. Yet, when planned for separately, these two goals frequently contradict each other. This article discusses the characteristics, problems, and strategies associated with downtown pedestrians and parking and advocates an integrated approach wherein the needs of both pedestrians and motorists are balanced. The keys to achieving this balance are (1) finding appropriate locations for off-street parking facilities that do not impede pedestrian flow, and (2) designing parking facilities that are sensitive to pedestrians and facilitate pedestrian connections.

Keywords: parking, pedestrian planning
[92] Ryan Russo. Parking & housing: Best practices for increasing housing affordability and achieving Smart Growth. Technical report, The Non-Profit Housing Association of Northern California, Inc., 2001. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: parking, urban planning
[93] Tom Rye, Tom Cowan, and Stephen Ison. Expansion of a controlled parking zone and its influence on mode split: The case of Edinburgh. Transportation Planning and Technology, 29(1):75, February 2006. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[94] Tom Rye and Stephen Ison. Overcoming barriers to the implementation of car parking charges at UK workplaces. Transport Policy, 12(1):57-64, 2005. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[95] Jaana Salo. Conditions related to cycling and planning parking facilities for bicycles. In Proceedings of Velo Mondiale 2000, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2000. [ bib | .PDF ]
Keywords: bicycle planning, bicycle parking
[96] J.G. Shaw. Planning for parking. Technical report, University of Iowa Public Policy Center, Ames, IA, USA, 1997. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[97] Y. Shiftan. The effects of parking pricing and supply on travel patterns to a major business district. In E. Stern, I. Salomon, and P. Bovy, editors, Travel Behaviour: Spatial Patterns, Congestion and Modelling. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK, 2002. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[98] Y. Shiftan and R. Burd-Eden. Modeling response to parking policy. Transportation Research Record, 1765:27-34, 2001. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[99] Donald C. Shoup. An opportunity to reduce minimum parking requirements. Journal of the American Planning Association, 61(1):14-28, 1995. [ bib ]
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[100] Donald C. Shoup. The high cost of free parking. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 17(1):3-20, Fall 1997. [ bib | .pdf ]
Urban planners typically set minimum parking requirements to meet the peak demand for parking at each land use, without considering either the price motorists pay for parking or the cost of providing the required parking spaces. By reducing the market price of parking, minimum parking requirements provide subsidies that inflate parking demand, and this inflated demand is then used to set minimum parking requirements. When considered as an impact fee, minimum parking requirements can increase development costs by more than 10 times the impact fees for all other public purposes combined. Eliminating minimum parking requirements would reduce the cost of urban development, improve urban design, reduce automobile dependency, and restrain urban sprawl.

Keywords: transport planning, parking
[101] Donald C. Shoup. Instead of free parking. Access Magazine, 15:10-15, 1999. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[102] Donald C. Shoup. The trouble with minimum parking requirements. Transportation Research A, 33(7/8):549-574, September 1999. [ bib | .pdf ]
A top-notch article. Fascinating reading. I suspect that we need some intermediate steps before priced curb parking could be viable, but I like some of his analysis of the costs associated with parking, and his illustration of the benefits of paid parking. He raises some interesting novel points about (1) minimum parking requirements depressing land values; (2) fee-in-lieu as a way of gauging the value of parking spaces; (3) minimum parking requirements mandate meeting the peak demand for free parking, preventing a market from forming; (4) minimum parking requirements derive from a desire to prevent spillover effects in residential areas.
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[103] Donald C. Shoup. Roughly right or precisely wrong. Access Magazine, 20:20-26, 2002. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[104] Donald C. Shoup. Truth in transportation planning. Journal of Transportation and Statistics, 6(1):1-16, 2003. [ bib ]
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[105] Donald C. Shoup. The ideal source of local public revenue. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 34(6):753-784, November 2004. [ bib ]
Free or underpriced curb parking creates a classic commons problem. Studies have found that between 8% and 74% of cars in congested traffic were cruising in search of curb parking, and that the average time to find a curb space ranged between 3 and 14 min. Cities can eliminate the economic incentive to cruise by charging market-clearing prices for curb parking spaces. Market-priced curb parking can yield between 5% and 8% of the total land rent in a city, and in some neighborhoods can yield more revenue than the property tax.

Keywords: parking
[106] Donald C. Shoup. The High Cost of Free Parking. American Planning Association, Chicago, IL, USA, 2005. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, transport planning
[107] Donald C. Shoup. Parking cash out. Planning Advisory Service Report 532, American Planning Association, Chicago, IL, USA, 2005. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, transport planning
[108] Donald C. Shoup. San Francisco and L.A.: Parking makes the difference. Planning, 71(1):36-37, January 2005. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, transport planning
[109] Donald C. Shoup and M. Breinholt. Employer-paid parking: a nationwide survey of employers' parking subsidy policies. In D. Greene, D. Jones, and M. Delucchi, editors, The Full Social Costs and Benefits of Transportation. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany, 1997. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, transport planning
[110] Donald C. Shoup and Donald H. Pickrell. Problems with parking requirements in zoning ordinances. Traffic Quarterly, 32(4):545-563, October 1978. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[111] Donald C. Shoup and Donald H. Pickrell. Free parking as a transportation problem. Technical report, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., USA, 1980. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[112] Donald C. Shoup and Richard W. Willson. Employer-paid parking: The problem and a proposed solution. Transportation Quarterly, 46(2):169-192, 1992. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[113] S. Smith and A. Hekimian. Parking requirements for local zoning ordinances. ITE Journal, 55:35-40, 1985. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[114] SPUR. Reducing housing costs by rethinking parking requirements. Technical report, The San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association, 1998. [ bib | .pdf ]
Keywords: urban planning, equity, parking
[115] Ben Still and David C. Simmonds. Parking restraint policy and urban vitality. Transport Reviews, 20(3):291-316, 2000. [ bib | DOI | .pdf ]
The aim of the paper is to examine whether parking restraint policies may have impacts on the economic vitality of urban centres. Literature from empirical, attitudinal and modelling studies is reviewed within a structure based around a conceptual framework of parking impacts. The search for relevant material was undertaken both for the UK and overseas, but the discussion and conclusions were related to the UK context. Original modelling was undertaken and is reported here. This review found that as parking restraint policies have not been previously implemented with consistency or longevity, there is a lack of direct evidence, given that land-use impacts typically involve a long-term response. Furthermore, different methods of examining impacts have come to very different conclusions. Attitudinal evidence suggests that there is a high level of sensitivity to parking provision, whereas aggregate statistical studies tend to find only a weak relationship. The reasons underlying these differences are discussed. Land-use/transport models show impacts if there is sufficient change in generalized cost, although the spatial distribution of impacts, and impacts by household or employment disaggregation, vary considerably. Given the inconclusive nature of the evidence to date, only tentative policy implications can be drawn. Recommendations for further research are outlined, both for empirical study and for model enhancements.

Keywords: urban planning, parking
[116] M. Surber, Donald C. Shoup, and Martin Wachs. Effects of ending employer-paid parking for solo drivers. Transportation Research Record, 957, 1984. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[117] Hartmutt H. Topp. Parking policies in large cities in Germany. Transportation, 18:3-21, 1991. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[118] Hartmutt H. Topp. Parking policies to reduce car use in German cities. Transport Reviews, 13:83-95, 1993. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[119] Transport Canada. The effects of the imposition of parking charges on urban travel in Canada. Summary Report TP-291, Transport Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1978. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking, canada
[120] D.A. Tsamboulaspos. Parking fare thresholds: a policy tool. Transport Policy, 8(2):115-124, April 2001. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[121] Cy Ulberg, Graciela Etchart, and Bethany Whitaker. Local option commercial parking tax analysis. Technical report, University of Washington, Washington State Transportation Center (TRAC), Seattle, WA, USA, January 1992. [ bib | http ]
Keywords: parking
[122] Urban Land Institute and National Parking Association. The Dimensions of Parking. The Urban Land Institute, Washington, D.C., USA, 2nd edition, 1983. [ bib ]
Wow, what an awful collection of essays. I can't speak for the more engineering-oriented chapters (“Construction Techniques” or “Ventilation”), but the chapters on energy and the environment are so glib and blinkered that they're painful. “Parking Demand” was the most painful: after rightly pointing out the error of relying on tables of “questionable, inappropriate, unknown, or obsolete origin”, Jean Keneipp then tells us to rely on these tables as long as they come from state transportation departments. He's also big on building to accommodate peak demand, instead of absorbing peak demand with other modes. Sigh.
Keywords: parking, transport planning
[123] Urban Land Institute and National Parking Association. The Dimensions of Parking. The Urban Land Institute, Washington, D.C., USA, 4th edition, 2000. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[124] Urban Systems Inc. Parking issues and opportunities. Technical report, University of British Columbia Properties Inc., Vancouver, BC, Canada, 1999. [ bib | .pdf ]
An interesting read. It has a lot of useful Vancouver context, in more detail than other similar reports that I've read. That said, it makes a classic planning mistake: they make some decisions by surveying neighbouring jurisdictions and looking at averages.
Keywords: parking, transport planning, canada, transportation demand management
[125] Peter van der Waerden, Harry J.P. Timmermans, and Aloys Borgers. PAMELA: Parking analysis model for predicting effects in local areas. Transportation Research Record, 1781, 2002. [ bib | DOI ]
Keywords: parking
[126] Erik Verhoef, Peter Nijkamp, and Piet Rietvald. The economics of regulatory parking policies: the (im)possibilities of parking policies in traffic regulation. Transportation Research A, 29(2):141-156, March 1995. [ bib ]
This article contains an economic analysis of regulatory parking policies as a substitute to road pricing. The scope for such policies is discussed, after which a simple diagrammatic analysis is presented, focusing on the differences between the use of parking fees and physical restrictions on parking space supply. The former is found to be superior for three reasons: an information argument, a temporal efficiency argument and an intertemporal efficiency argument. Finally, a spatial parking model is developed, showing that it may be possible to overcome the difficulty of regulatory parking policies not differentiating according to distance driven by specifying the appropriate spatial pattern of parking fees, making individuals respond to (spatial) parking fee differentials.

Keywords: parking, congestion pricing, urban economics
[127] Erik Verhoef, Peter Nijkamp, and Piet Rietvald. Regulatory parking policies at the firm level. Environment and Planning C, 14(3):385-406, 1996. [ bib ]
This paper is focused on the intersection of two main policy 'tracks' followed in the Netherlands for the containment of road transport externalities: transport plans at the firm level, and regulatory parking policies. In this paper an applied modelling approach is taken, and the aim is to identify the relative importance of factors that are decisive for the viability of an individual firm's parking policies. The outcomes of an empirical survey conducted at the corporate level of the Free University in Amsterdam are used to discuss the social feasibility of regulatory parking policies conducted at the firm level (in terms of the employees' attitudes) and the effectiveness of such policies. Insight is provided into relevant backgrounds and obstacles serving to affect employees' commuting behaviour and that are likely to be encountered in the formulation of regulatory transport policies at the firm level. Moreover, the outcomes of this research may be relevant for the evaluation of regulatory parking policies at larger spatial scales (for example, neighbourhood parking schemes).

Keywords: parking
[128] Robert Weant and Henry Levinson. Parking. Technical report, Eno Foundation for Transportation, Westport, CT, USA, 1990. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[129] Richard W. Willson. Parking subsidies and the drive-alone commuter: New evidence and implications. Transportation Research Record, 1181, 1988. [ bib ]
Keywords: transport planning, parking
[130] Richard W. Willson. Estimating the travel and parking effects of employer-paid parking. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 22:133-145, 1992. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[131] Richard W. Willson. Suburban parking economics and policy: Case studies of office worksites in Southern California. Technical Report FTA-CA-11-0036-92-1, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., USA, 1992. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[132] Richard W. Willson. Suburban parking requirements: a tacit policy for automobile use and sprawl. Journal of the American Planning Association, 61(1):29-42, 1995. [ bib ]
One of the better parking papers that I've read, and one which makes the connection to urban form explicit. One sentence was phrased in a way that struck me: he notes that each site is required to have adequate space to meet peak demands-rather than allowing one “peak” site for the area. Existing parking standards insist that parking must be provided exactly at the destination, even for rare peak demands.
Keywords: transport planning, parking, land use transport link
[133] Richard W. Willson. Replacement parking for joint development: An access policy methodology. Technical report, San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit, Departments of Planning and Real Estate, San Francisco, CA, USA, April 2005. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[134] Richard W. Willson and Donald C. Shoup. Parking subsidies and travel choices: Assessing the evidence. Transportation, 17:141-157, 1990. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[135] W. Young and M. Taylor. A parking model hierarchy. Transportation, 18:37-58, 1991. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking
[136] W. Young, R.G. Thompson, and M.A.P. Taylor. A review of car parking models. Transport Reviews, 11(1):63-84, 1991. [ bib ]
Keywords: parking

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