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@ARTICLE{FraAndSch04,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Martin A.~Andresen and Thomas L.~ Schmid},
title = {Obesity Relationships with community design, physical
activity, and time spent in cars},
year = 2004,
month = AUG,
volume = 27,
number = 2,
pages = {87--96},
journal = {American Journal of Preventive Medicine},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, active transportation, urban form, land use transport link},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/ajpm-aug04.pdf},
abstract = {
Obesity is a major health problem in the United States and
around the world. To date, relationships between obesity and
aspects of the built environment have not been evaluated
empirically at the individual level.
Objective
To evaluate the relationship between the built environment
around each participant's place of residence and self-reported
travel patterns (walking and time in a car), body mass index
(BMI), and obesity for specific gender and ethnicity
classifications.
Body Mass Index, minutes spent in a car, kilometers walked,
age, income, educational attainment, and gender were derived
through a travel survey of 10,878 participants in the Atlanta,
Georgia region. Objective measures of land use mix, net residential
density, and street connectivity were developed within a
1-kilometer network distance of each participant's place of
residence. A cross-sectional design was used to associate urban
form measures with obesity, BMI, and transportation-related
activity when adjusting for sociodemographic covariates.
Discrete analyses were conducted across gender and ethnicity.
The data were collected between 2000 and 2002 and analysis was
conducted in 2004.
Land-use mix had the strongest association with obesity (BMI>=30
kg/m^2), with each quartile increase being associated
with a 12.2\% reduction in the likelihood of obesity across
gender and ethnicity. Each additional hour spent in a car per
day was associated with a 6\% increase in the likelihood of
obesity. Conversely, each additional kilometer walked per day
was associated with a 4.8\% reduction in the likelihood of
obesity. As a continuous measure, BMI was significantly
associated with urban form for white cohorts. Relationships
among urban form, walk distance, and time in a car were
stronger among white than black cohorts.
Measures of the built environment and travel patterns are
important predictors of obesity across gender and ethnicity,
yet relationships among the built environment, travel patterns, and
weight may vary across gender and ethnicity. Strategies to
increase land-use mix and distance walked while reducing time
in a car can be effective as health interventions.
},
status = {read},
annote = {
A very useful addition to the debates on urban form. I'm a fan of
anything bring active transportation into the debate, rather than
just trying to reduce SOV trips. I'm curious about why they
found land-use mix and walking distance to be statistically
independent influences on obesity. Their speculation that it may
be related to nutrition (and so-called ``food deserts'') is an
interesting idea.
}
}
@ARTICLE{FraPiv94,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Gary Pivo},
title = {Impacts of mixed use and density on utilization of three modes
of travel: single-occupant vehicle, transit, and walking},
year = 1994,
journal = {Transportation Research Record},
volume = 1466,
pages = {44--52},
status = {read},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, urban form, transit, active transportation, land use transport link},
abstract = {
Findings from an empirical analysis to test the impacts of land-use
mix, population density, and employment density on the use of the
single-occupant vehicle (SOV), transit and walking for both work
trips and shopping trips are presented. The hypothetical
relationships tested focused on whether there is a relationship
between urban form and modal choice, whether this relationship
exists when controlling for non-urban form factors, whether this
relationship is linear or nonlinear, and whether a stronger
relationship exists between modal choice and urban form when they
are measured at both trip ends as opposed to either the origin or
the destination. A review of the literature and experiences
suggested that a fair amount of information is known about the
impacts of density on mode choice. However, considerable debate
exists over whether density itself is actually the causal stimulus
or a surrogate for other factors. To address this issue a data base
was developed with a comprehensive set of variables for which
density may be a proxy, for example, demographics and level of
service. This analysis employed a correlational research design in
which mode choice was compared among census tracts with differing
levels of density and mix. Findings from this research indicate
that density and mix are both related to mode choice, even when
controlling for non-urban form factors for both work trips and
shopping trips. Furthermore, the relationship between population
and employment density and mode choice for SOV, transit and walking
is nonlinear for both work and shopping trips. Transit usage and
walking increase as density and land-use mix increase, whereas SOV
usage declines. The findings from this research suggest that
measuring urban form at both trip ends provides a greater ability
to predict travel choices than looking at trip ends separately. The
findings also suggest that increasing the level of land-use mix at
the trip origins and destinations is also related to a reduction in
SOV travel and an increase in transit and walking.
},
annote = {
Solid research, with more convincing methodology than Sch96 (which
I read at about the same time).
Overall, the most interesting result of the paper is the
demonstration of nonlinearity. Figures 2 and 3 of their paper show
a graph of modal share vs. employment density, and vs. population
density. These graphs show that major increases in bus/walk modes
only happen at employment densities greater than 125
employees/acre (work trips), or 13 residents/acre (shopping trips).
The implications for policy are obvious: if you aren't going to
reach those thresholds, you're wasting your time. Also, the
employment graph shows substantial nonlinearity: between 75 and 125
employees/acre, there is essentially no change in mode share.
They also had some predictable results: walking trips were the most
sensitive to increases in population density; it's worth
considering densities at both trip ends (i.e., both residential
population density and employment population density); etc.
}
}
@ARTICLE{Fra94,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Impacts of Mixed Used and Density on Utilization of Three
Modes of Travel: Single-Occupant Vehicle, Transit, Walking},
year = 1994,
journal = {Transportation Research Record},
volume = 1466,
pages = {44--52},
keywords = {land use transport link, urban form}
}
@ARTICLE{Fra98,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Improving Air Quality through Growth Management and Travel
Reduction Strategies},
year = 1998,
journal = {Journal of Urban Planning and Development},
volume = 124,
number = 1,
pages = {11--32},
keywords = {transport planning, transportation demand management, urban form, greenhouse gases},
abstract = {
Land-use impacts on travel demand and vehicle emissions is
emerging as a topic of major interest, as several regions
around the nation struggle to demonstrate conformance with the
requirements of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA).
The implementation of the CAAA threatens the withholding of
federal transportation funding from several regions unable to
demonstrate the ability to meet milestone reductions in
emissions required by the CAAA. A case study of a network of
policies emerging in Washington State as part of growth
management efforts is presented. These policies, when coupled
with federal clean air (CAAA) and surface transportation
legislation (ISTEA), provide a framework for the
implementation of land-use strategies that are associated with
less vehicular travel and emissions. A review of the land
development and transportation investment policies espoused in
newly adopted local comprehensive plans in the Central Puget
Sound Region of Washington State are presented. This review
indicates a shift toward planning solutions that could result
in reduced vehicle emissions if implemented.
}
}
@ARTICLE{Fra00,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Land use and transportation interaction: implications on
public health and quality of life},
journal = {Journal of Planning Education and Research},
year = 2000,
month = SEP,
volume = 20,
number = 1,
pages = {6--22},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, active transportation, land use transport link},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/Frank\%20-\%20JPER\%20-\%202000.pdf},
abstract = {
Increases in per capita vehicle usage and associated emissions have
spawned
an increased the examination of the ways in which our communities and
regions are developing. Associated with increased vehicle usage are
decreased levels of walking and biking, two valid forms of physical
activity. The Surgeon General's 1996 report, Physical Activity and
Health, highlights the increasing level of physical inactivity as a
growing cause of mortality. The costs and benefits of contrasting land
development and transportation investment practices have been the
subject of considerable debate in the literature. Findings have
been refuted based on methodological grounds and inaccurate
interpretation of data. Several of these studies, their methodological
approaches, and their critiques are analyzed. While most agree that the
built environment influences travel, considerable disagreement exists
over the likely impacts of increased density, mix, and street
connectivity on air quality, transportation system performance, and
household activity patterns.
}
}
@ARTICLE{Fra01,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Transportation, Air Quality and Thinking Big: Pollution
Control Requires a Holistic Approach},
year = 2001,
journal = {T.R.~News},
volume = 213,
pages = {35--37},
keywords = {energy, transport planning, urban planning}
}
@INPROCEEDINGS{Fra02,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Land Use and Transportation},
year = 2002,
booktitle = {Proceedings of the Conference on Environment Research Needs in
Transportation},
publisher = {Transportation Research Board},
pages = {127--137},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, land use transport link}
}
@ARTICLE{FraDun98,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Robert T.~Dunphy},
title = {{S}mart {G}rowth and Transportation},
year = 1998,
month = MAY,
journal = {Urban Land},
volume = 76,
number = 5,
pages = {58--63},
publisher = {Urban Land Institute},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning}
}
@TECHREPORT{FraEng00,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Peter O.~Engelke},
title = {An Annotated Bibliography of Research on Land Development and
Transportation Practices that Impact Physical Activity and Health},
year = 2000,
month = JAN,
institution = {Active Community Environments},
type = {Working Paper},
number = 2,
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, active transportation, urban form, land use transport link, urban planning},
url = {http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/pdf/aces-workingpaper2.pdf}
}
@ARTICLE{FraEng01,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Peter O.~Engelke},
title = {The built environment and human activity patterns: exploring
the impacts of urban form on public health},
year = 2001,
month = NOV,
journal = {Journal of Planning Literature},
volume = 16,
number = 2,
pages = {202--218},
keywords = {active transportation, urban planning, transport planning, urban form, land use transport link},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/Frank\%20and\%20Engelke\%20-\%20JPL\%20-\%202001.pdf},
abstract = {
An increasing body of evidence suggests that moderate forms of
physical activity (such as walking and bicycling), when engaged
in regularly, can have important beneficial effects on public
health. This article reviews current public health, planning,
and urban design research to determine, first, how walking and
bicycling might be critically important exercise behaviors for
improving public health, second, how urban form affects the
frequency of walking and bicycling as a form of physical
activity, and third, how the public health considerations
outlined in this article might reorient planners' thinking
toward the realization of health-promotive environments. The
current lack of emphasis on the interdependencies between built
form and overall quality of life, as measured by health,
safety, and welfare considerations, suggests the need for a
rethinking of public policy approaches to transportation
investment and land development.
}
}
@ARTICLE{FraEng04,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Peter O.~Engelke},
title = {Multiple Impacts of Urban Form on Public Health},
year = 2004,
journal = {International Regional Science Review},
keywords = {active transportation, urban planning, transport planning, urban form, land use transport link}
}
@BOOK{FraEngSch03,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Peter O.~Engelke and Thomas L.~Schmid},
title = {Health and Community Design: The Impacts of the Built
Environment on Physical Activity},
publisher = {Island Press},
address = {Washington, D.C., USA},
year = 2003,
keywords = {active transportation, urban planning, pedestrian planning, bicycle planning, urban form, transport planning, land use transport link}
}
@TECHREPORT{FraEngSchKil01,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Peter O.~Engelke and Thomas L.~Schmid
and Richard E.~Killingsworth},
title = {How Land Use and Transportation Systems Impact Public Health:
A Literature Review of the Relationship Between Physical Activity
and Built Form},
year = 2001,
institution = {Active Community Environments},
number = 1,
type = {Working Paper},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, active transportation, land use transport link, urban form},
url = {http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/pdf/aces-workingpaper1.pdf}
}
@ARTICLE{FraSalConChaSaeBac06,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and James F.~Sallis and Terry L.~Conway and
James E.~Chapman and Brian E.~Saelens and William Bachman},
title = {Many Pathways from Land Use to Health: Associations between
Neighborhood Walkability and Active Transportation, Body Mass Index,
and Air Quality},
year = 2006,
journal = {Journal of the American Planning Association},
volume = 72,
number = 1,
pages = {75--87},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/JAPA-06-Franketal.pdf},
keywords = {active transportation}
}
@ARTICLE{FraSchSalChaSae05,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Thomas L.~Schmid and James F.~Sallis
and James E.~Chapman and Brian E.~Saelens},
title = {Linking objectively measured physical activity with
objectively measured urban form: Findings from {SMARTRAQ}},
year = 2005,
journal = {American Journal of Preventive Medicine},
volume = 28,
number = {2S2},
pages = {117--125},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/jpm-feb05.pdf},
keywords = {active transportation}
}
@ARTICLE{FraStoBac00,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Brian Stone and William Bachman},
title = {Linking land use with household vehicle emissions in the
{C}entral {P}uget {S}ound: Methodological framework and findings},
year = 2000,
month = MAY,
journal = {Transportation Research D},
volume = 5,
number = 3,
pages = {173--196},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, urban form, land use transport link},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/Frank\%20et\%20al\%20-\%20TR\%20-\%202000.pdf},
abstract = {
A leading cause of air pollution in many urban regions is mobile
source emissions that are largely attributable to household
vehicle travel. While household travel patterns have been
previously related with land use in the literature (Crane, R.,
1996. Journal of the American Planning Association 62
(1, Winter); Cervero, R. and Kockelman, C., 1997.
Transportation Research Part D 2 (3), 199--219), little
work has been conducted that effectively extends this
relationship to vehicle emissions. This paper describes a
methodology for quantifying relationships between land use,
travel choices, and vehicle emissions within the Seattle,
Washington region. Our analysis incorporates land use measures of
density and mix which affect the proximity of trip origins to
destinations; a measure of connectivity which impacts the
directness and completeness of pedestrian and motorized
linkages; vehicle trip generation by operating mode; vehicle
miles/h of travel and speed; and estimated household vehicle
emissions of nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and
carbon monoxide. The data used for this project consists of the
Puget Sound Transportation Panel Travel Survey, the 1990 US
Census, employment density data from the Washington State
Employment Security Office, and information on Seattle's
vehicle fleet mix and climatological attributes provided by the
Washington State Department of Ecology. Analyses are based on a
cross-sectional research design in which comparisons are made
of variations in household travel demand and emissions across
alternative urban form typologies. Base emission rates from
MOBILE5a and separate engine start rates are used to calculate
total vehicle emissions in grams accounting for fleet
characteristics and other inputs reflecting adopted
transportation control measures. Emissions per trip are based
on the network distance of each trip, average travel speed, and
a multi-stage engine operating mode (cold start, hot start, and
stabilized) function.
}
}
@BOOK{FruFraJac04,
author = {Howard Frumkin and Lawrence D.~Frank and Richard Jackson},
title = {Urban sprawl and public health: designing, planning, and
building for healthy communities},
publisher = {Island Press},
address = {Washington, D.C., USA},
year = 2004,
keywords = {active transportation, urban planning, pedestrian planning, bicycle planning, urban form, transport planning}
}
@INPROCEEDINGS{JouFraBacSto00,
author = {R.~Joumard and Lawrence D.~Frank and Brian Stone and William
Bachman},
title = {Testing urban design and air quality relationships in the
{A}tlanta region},
year = 2000,
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 9th Symposium on Transport and Air
Pollution},
pages = {263--270},
keywords = {transport planning, urban form, urban planning, land use transport link},
abstract = {
This study presents evidence that households, located in areas of
the Atlanta Region with moderately high levels of street
connectivity and compactness, drive and pollute less on a daily
basis. This analysis employs a rigorous methodology to assess
the emissions per household on a per trip basis accounting for
cold start cycles, speed, hot stabilized operation, distance,
and regional fleet characteristics. Emissions per household are
cross-sectionally correlated with the land use patterns at the
place of residence. These findings support the argument that a
``nexus'' exists between land use policies implemented through
local government development regulations and household travel
behavior (ie mode choice, travel distance, travel time, and
vehicle emissions). This research provides an initial
and very critical step that is required to lend credibility to
the argument that major metropolitan regions should consider
alternatives to current land and travel intensive development
patterns to meet future air quality objectives.
}
}
@ARTICLE{LevFra07,
author = {Jonathan Levine and Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Transportation and Land Use Preferences and residents'
neighborhood choices: the sufficiency of compact development in the
{A}tlanta region},
year = 2007,
journal = {Transportation},
keywords = {land use transport link}
}
@ARTICLE{SaeSalFra03,
author = {Brian E.~Saelens and Jim F.~Sallis and Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Environmental Correlates of Walking and Cycling: Findings
from Transportation, Urban Design and City Planning Literatures},
journal = {Annals of Behavioral Medicine},
year = 2003,
volume = 25,
number = 2,
pages = {80--91},
keywords = {active transportation, urban planning, urban form},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/Saelens\%20et\%20al\%20-\%20ABM\%20-\%202003.pdf},
abstract = {
Research in transportation, urban design, and planning has examined
associations between physical environment variables and
individuals' walking and cycling for transport. Constructs,
methods, and findings from these fields can be applied by physical
activity and health researchers to improve understanding of
environmental influences on physical activity. In this review,
neighborhood environment characteristics proposed to be relevant to
walking/cycling for transport are defined, including population
density, connectivity, and land use mix. Neighborhood
comparison and correlational studies with nonmotorized
transport outcomes are considered, with evidence suggesting
that residents from communities with higher density, greater
connectivity, and more land use mix report higher rates of
walking/cycling for utilitarian purposes than low-density,
poorly connected, and single land use neighborhoods. Environmental
variables appear to add to variance accounted for beyond
sociodemographic predictors of walking/cycling for transport.
Implications of the transportation literature for physical
activity and related research are outlined. Future research
directions are detailed for physical activity research to
further examine the impact of neighborhood and other physical
environment factors on physical activity and the potential
interactive effects of psychosocial and environmental
variables. The transportation, urban design, and planning
literatures provide a valuable starting point for
multidisciplinary research on environmental contributions to
physical activity levels in the population.
}
}
@ARTICLE{SalFraSaeKra04,
author = {Jim F.~Sallis and Lawrence D.~Frank and Brian E.~Saelens and
M.~Katherine Kraft},
title = {Active transportation and physical activity: Opportunities
for collaboration on transportation and public health research},
year = 2004,
month = MAY,
journal = {Transportation Research A},
volume = 38,
number = 4,
pages = {249--268},
keywords = {active transportation, transport planning},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/Sallis\%20et\%20al\%20-\%20TR\%20-\%202004.pdf},
abstract = {
Physically inactive lifestyles are a major public health challenge,
and research in the transportation field on influences on the
choice to walk and bike may provide guidance toward solutions.
In the interests of promoting effective collaboration among the
transportation, planning, and health fields, the current paper
was written to fulfill three purposes. The first purpose was to
summarize the transportation and planning studies on the
relation between community design and non-motorized (``active'')
transport and to interpret these studies from a health
perspective. The second purpose was to summarize studies from
the health literature that examine the relation between
physical environmental variables and leisure-time physical
activity that have relevance for transportation research. The
third purpose was to promote more collaboration among
transportation, planning, and health investigators by
identifying opportunities for trans-disciplinary research.
}
}
@ARTICLE{SalOweFra00,
author = {Jim F.~Sallis and N.~Owen and Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Behavioral epidemiology: a systematic framework to classify
phases of research on health promotion and disease prevention},
year = 2000,
journal = {Annals of Behavioral Medicine},
volume = 22,
pages = {294--298},
keywords = {active transportation}
}
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