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@article{CerDun03,
author = {Robert Cervero and Michael Duncan},
title = {Walking, Bicycling and Urban Landscapes: Evidence from the
{S}an {F}rancisco {B}ay {A}rea},
journal = {American Journal of Public Health},
year = 2003,
volume = 93,
number = 9,
pages = {1478--1483},
keywords = {active transportation, pedestrian planning, bicycle planning, urban form, bicycle modelling},
status = {read},
abstract = {
Some claim that cardependent cities contribute to obesity by
discouraging walking and bicycling. In this article, we use household
activity data from the San Francisco region to study the links between
urban environments and nonmotorized travel.
We used factor analysis to represent the urban design and land-use
diversity dimensions of built environments. Combining factor scores
with control variables, like steep terrain, that gauge impediments to
walking and bicycling, we estimated discrete-choice models.
Builtenvironment factors exerted far weaker, although not
inconsequential, influences on walking and bicycling than control
variables.
Stronger evidence on the importance of urban landscapes in shaping foot
and bicycle travel is needed if the urban planning and public health
professions are to forge an effective alliance against cardependent
sprawl.
},
annote = {
A good study looking at the factors influencing cycling and
walking. The perspective is Cervero's usual framework, the three Ds:
density, diversity and design. All three are found to have significant
influences on bicycle usage, with the residential end being
slightly more important. Of the urban form variables, the presence
of neighbourhood retail is found to be the strongest predictor of
walking.
From an evaluation standpoint, I wish these authors would
standardize/normalize the coefficients of their models! After
limiting to statistically significant variables, normalization
would allow me to compare the relative influence of each
variable on bicycle usage. It would also be extremely useful to
include the mean and standard deviation of all input variables, to
allow some rough comparisons to other study areas. If the input
data has low variance (e.g., a uniformly low-density suburb),
meaningful patterns could be missed.
Finally, the bicycle model seems pretty shoddy---the rho-squared
value is only 0.13! Since it only considers factors at origin and
destination, I imagine it's missing a massive amount of valuable
data, like the topography, safety and quality of the route itself.
},
url = {http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1447996}
}
@techreport{EidOvePugTur06,
author = {Jean Eid and Henry G.~Overman and Diego Puga and Matthew
A.~Turner},
title = {Fat {C}ity: Questioning the Relationship between Urban Sprawl
and Obesity},
year = 2006,
type = {Manuscript Paper},
institution = {University of Toronto},
status = {read},
url = {http://www.upf.edu/grec/en/0607/docs/fatcity.pdf},
keywords = {urban planning, active transportation, land use transport link},
annote = {
After a quick read, my main criticism regards their choice of
neighbourhood variables. I am not convinced that they are capturing
``walkability'' in their coarse residential sprawl index or
``mixed-use'' index. While these two variables are intended to
capture density and diversity (ignoring design), they ignore the
work environment and probably do a poor job of measuring the
residential environment. They also tried using the Smart Growth America
sprawl index, but this index is not local enough to capture
the necessary neighbourhood-scale effects.
Additionally, I have to wonder about their sample---how many
walkable environments were actually sampled? In the US, an
unstratified sampling strategy would not include many walkable
locations.
Finally, I have to wonder about time lags: their model only
captures a change in BMI in the year following a move (when a
change in sprawl/mixed use is observed). What about subsequent years?
That said, these weaknesses are present in many other papers in the
literature, and they do bring some interesting perspectives and
methodology to the table. The inclusion of occupation variables
associated with strength and strenuousness was a valuable addition
to modelling in this area. I'd need to read the paper more closely
before I'd be prepared to defend my complaints, really.
}
}
@article{FraAndSch04,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Martin A.~Andresen and Thomas L.~ Schmid},
title = {Obesity Relationships with community design, physical
activity, and time spent in cars},
year = 2004,
month = aug,
volume = 27,
number = 2,
pages = {87--96},
journal = {American Journal of Preventive Medicine},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, active transportation, urban form, land use transport link},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/ajpm-aug04.pdf},
abstract = {
Obesity is a major health problem in the United States and
around the world. To date, relationships between obesity and
aspects of the built environment have not been evaluated
empirically at the individual level.
Objective
To evaluate the relationship between the built environment
around each participant's place of residence and self-reported
travel patterns (walking and time in a car), body mass index
(BMI), and obesity for specific gender and ethnicity
classifications.
Body Mass Index, minutes spent in a car, kilometers walked,
age, income, educational attainment, and gender were derived
through a travel survey of 10,878 participants in the Atlanta,
Georgia region. Objective measures of land use mix, net residential
density, and street connectivity were developed within a
1-kilometer network distance of each participant's place of
residence. A cross-sectional design was used to associate urban
form measures with obesity, BMI, and transportation-related
activity when adjusting for sociodemographic covariates.
Discrete analyses were conducted across gender and ethnicity.
The data were collected between 2000 and 2002 and analysis was
conducted in 2004.
Land-use mix had the strongest association with obesity (BMI>=30
kg/m^2), with each quartile increase being associated
with a 12.2\% reduction in the likelihood of obesity across
gender and ethnicity. Each additional hour spent in a car per
day was associated with a 6\% increase in the likelihood of
obesity. Conversely, each additional kilometer walked per day
was associated with a 4.8\% reduction in the likelihood of
obesity. As a continuous measure, BMI was significantly
associated with urban form for white cohorts. Relationships
among urban form, walk distance, and time in a car were
stronger among white than black cohorts.
Measures of the built environment and travel patterns are
important predictors of obesity across gender and ethnicity,
yet relationships among the built environment, travel patterns, and
weight may vary across gender and ethnicity. Strategies to
increase land-use mix and distance walked while reducing time
in a car can be effective as health interventions.
},
status = {read},
annote = {
A very useful addition to the debates on urban form. I'm a fan of
anything bring active transportation into the debate, rather than
just trying to reduce SOV trips. I'm curious about why they
found land-use mix and walking distance to be statistically
independent influences on obesity. Their speculation that it may
be related to nutrition (and so-called ``food deserts'') is an
interesting idea.
}
}
@article{FraPiv94,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Gary Pivo},
title = {Impacts of mixed use and density on utilization of three modes
of travel: single-occupant vehicle, transit, and walking},
year = 1994,
journal = {Transportation Research Record},
volume = 1466,
pages = {44--52},
status = {read},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, urban form, transit, active transportation, land use transport link},
abstract = {
Findings from an empirical analysis to test the impacts of land-use
mix, population density, and employment density on the use of the
single-occupant vehicle (SOV), transit and walking for both work
trips and shopping trips are presented. The hypothetical
relationships tested focused on whether there is a relationship
between urban form and modal choice, whether this relationship
exists when controlling for non-urban form factors, whether this
relationship is linear or nonlinear, and whether a stronger
relationship exists between modal choice and urban form when they
are measured at both trip ends as opposed to either the origin or
the destination. A review of the literature and experiences
suggested that a fair amount of information is known about the
impacts of density on mode choice. However, considerable debate
exists over whether density itself is actually the causal stimulus
or a surrogate for other factors. To address this issue a data base
was developed with a comprehensive set of variables for which
density may be a proxy, for example, demographics and level of
service. This analysis employed a correlational research design in
which mode choice was compared among census tracts with differing
levels of density and mix. Findings from this research indicate
that density and mix are both related to mode choice, even when
controlling for non-urban form factors for both work trips and
shopping trips. Furthermore, the relationship between population
and employment density and mode choice for SOV, transit and walking
is nonlinear for both work and shopping trips. Transit usage and
walking increase as density and land-use mix increase, whereas SOV
usage declines. The findings from this research suggest that
measuring urban form at both trip ends provides a greater ability
to predict travel choices than looking at trip ends separately. The
findings also suggest that increasing the level of land-use mix at
the trip origins and destinations is also related to a reduction in
SOV travel and an increase in transit and walking.
},
annote = {
Solid research, with more convincing methodology than Sch96 (which
I read at about the same time).
Overall, the most interesting result of the paper is the
demonstration of nonlinearity. Figures 2 and 3 of their paper show
a graph of modal share vs. employment density, and vs. population
density. These graphs show that major increases in bus/walk modes
only happen at employment densities greater than 125
employees/acre (work trips), or 13 residents/acre (shopping trips).
The implications for policy are obvious: if you aren't going to
reach those thresholds, you're wasting your time. Also, the
employment graph shows substantial nonlinearity: between 75 and 125
employees/acre, there is essentially no change in mode share.
They also had some predictable results: walking trips were the most
sensitive to increases in population density; it's worth
considering densities at both trip ends (i.e., both residential
population density and employment population density); etc.
}
}
@article{Gil06,
author = {Billie Giles-Corti},
title = {People or places: what should be the target?},
year = 2006,
journal = {Journal of Science \& Medicine in Sports},
volume = 9,
pages = {357--366},
status = {read},
keywords = {active transportation, urban form}
}
@article{HanBoaEwiKil02,
author = {Susan L.~Handy and Marlon G.~Boarnet and Reid Ewing and
Richard E.~Killingsworth},
title = {How the built environment affects physical activity: Views from
urban planning},
year = 2002,
journal = {American Journal of Preventive Medicine},
volume = 23,
number = {2S},
pages = {64--73},
status = {read},
keywords = {urban form, land use transport link, urban planning, active transportation}
}
@article{PucDij03,
author = {John Pucher and Lewis Dijkstra},
title = {Promoting Safe Walking and Cycling to Improve Public Health:
Lessons from the {N}etherlands and {G}ermany},
journal = {American Journal of Public Health},
volume = 93,
number = 9,
year = 2003,
month = sep,
pages = {1509--1516},
annote = {
Some interesting stats on cycling and walking rates among the
elderly in Germany and the Netherlands},
keywords = {active transportation},
url = {http://policy.rutgers.edu/tpi/docs/usascii.pdf},
status = {read}
}
@article{EmeCruBor03,
author = {J.~Emery and C.~Crump and P.~Bors},
title = {Reliability and validity of two instruments designed to assess
the walking and bicycling suitability of sidewalks and roads},
year = 2003,
journal = {American Journal of Health Promotion},
volume = 18,
number = 1,
keywords = {bicycle planning, pedestrian planning, active transportation}
}
@article{Fra00,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Land use and transportation interaction: implications on
public health and quality of life},
journal = {Journal of Planning Education and Research},
year = 2000,
month = sep,
volume = 20,
number = 1,
pages = {6--22},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, active transportation, land use transport link},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/Frank\%20-\%20JPER\%20-\%202000.pdf},
abstract = {
Increases in per capita vehicle usage and associated emissions have
spawned
an increased the examination of the ways in which our communities and
regions are developing. Associated with increased vehicle usage are
decreased levels of walking and biking, two valid forms of physical
activity. The Surgeon General's 1996 report, Physical Activity and
Health, highlights the increasing level of physical inactivity as a
growing cause of mortality. The costs and benefits of contrasting land
development and transportation investment practices have been the
subject of considerable debate in the literature. Findings have
been refuted based on methodological grounds and inaccurate
interpretation of data. Several of these studies, their methodological
approaches, and their critiques are analyzed. While most agree that the
built environment influences travel, considerable disagreement exists
over the likely impacts of increased density, mix, and street
connectivity on air quality, transportation system performance, and
household activity patterns.
}
}
@techreport{FraEng00,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Peter O.~Engelke},
title = {An Annotated Bibliography of Research on Land Development and
Transportation Practices that Impact Physical Activity and Health},
year = 2000,
month = jan,
institution = {Active Community Environments},
type = {Working Paper},
number = 2,
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, active transportation, urban form, land use transport link, urban planning},
url = {http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/pdf/aces-workingpaper2.pdf}
}
@article{FraEng01,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Peter O.~Engelke},
title = {The built environment and human activity patterns: exploring
the impacts of urban form on public health},
year = 2001,
month = nov,
journal = {Journal of Planning Literature},
volume = 16,
number = 2,
pages = {202--218},
keywords = {active transportation, urban planning, transport planning, urban form, land use transport link},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/Frank\%20and\%20Engelke\%20-\%20JPL\%20-\%202001.pdf},
abstract = {
An increasing body of evidence suggests that moderate forms of
physical activity (such as walking and bicycling), when engaged
in regularly, can have important beneficial effects on public
health. This article reviews current public health, planning,
and urban design research to determine, first, how walking and
bicycling might be critically important exercise behaviors for
improving public health, second, how urban form affects the
frequency of walking and bicycling as a form of physical
activity, and third, how the public health considerations
outlined in this article might reorient planners' thinking
toward the realization of health-promotive environments. The
current lack of emphasis on the interdependencies between built
form and overall quality of life, as measured by health,
safety, and welfare considerations, suggests the need for a
rethinking of public policy approaches to transportation
investment and land development.
}
}
@article{FraEng04,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Peter O.~Engelke},
title = {Multiple Impacts of Urban Form on Public Health},
year = 2004,
journal = {International Regional Science Review},
keywords = {active transportation, urban planning, transport planning, urban form, land use transport link}
}
@book{FraEngSch03,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Peter O.~Engelke and Thomas L.~Schmid},
title = {Health and Community Design: The Impacts of the Built
Environment on Physical Activity},
publisher = {Island Press},
address = {Washington, D.C., USA},
year = 2003,
keywords = {active transportation, urban planning, pedestrian planning, bicycle planning, urban form, transport planning, land use transport link}
}
@techreport{FraEngSchKil01,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Peter O.~Engelke and Thomas L.~Schmid
and Richard E.~Killingsworth},
title = {How Land Use and Transportation Systems Impact Public Health:
A Literature Review of the Relationship Between Physical Activity
and Built Form},
year = 2001,
institution = {Active Community Environments},
number = 1,
type = {Working Paper},
keywords = {urban planning, transport planning, active transportation, land use transport link, urban form},
url = {http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/pdf/aces-workingpaper1.pdf}
}
@article{FraSalConChaSaeBac06,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and James F.~Sallis and Terry L.~Conway and
James E.~Chapman and Brian E.~Saelens and William Bachman},
title = {Many Pathways from Land Use to Health: Associations between
Neighborhood Walkability and Active Transportation, Body Mass Index,
and Air Quality},
year = 2006,
journal = {Journal of the American Planning Association},
volume = 72,
number = 1,
pages = {75--87},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/JAPA-06-Franketal.pdf},
keywords = {active transportation}
}
@article{FraSchSalChaSae05,
author = {Lawrence D.~Frank and Thomas L.~Schmid and James F.~Sallis
and James E.~Chapman and Brian E.~Saelens},
title = {Linking objectively measured physical activity with
objectively measured urban form: Findings from {SMARTRAQ}},
year = 2005,
journal = {American Journal of Preventive Medicine},
volume = 28,
number = {2S2},
pages = {117--125},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/jpm-feb05.pdf},
keywords = {active transportation}
}
@book{FruFraJac04,
author = {Howard Frumkin and Lawrence D.~Frank and Richard Jackson},
title = {Urban sprawl and public health: designing, planning, and
building for healthy communities},
publisher = {Island Press},
address = {Washington, D.C., USA},
year = 2004,
keywords = {active transportation, urban planning, pedestrian planning, bicycle planning, urban form, transport planning}
}
@article{SaeSalBlaChe03,
author = {Brian E.~Saelens and Jim F.~Sallis and Jennifer B.~Black and
Dianna Chen},
title = {Neighborhood-Based Differences in Physical Activity: An
Environmental Scale Evaluation},
year = 2003,
journal = {American Journal of Public Health},
volume = 93,
pages = {1552--1558},
keywords = {active transportation, urban form}
}
@article{SaeSalFra03,
author = {Brian E.~Saelens and Jim F.~Sallis and Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Environmental Correlates of Walking and Cycling: Findings
from Transportation, Urban Design and City Planning Literatures},
journal = {Annals of Behavioral Medicine},
year = 2003,
volume = 25,
number = 2,
pages = {80--91},
keywords = {active transportation, urban planning, urban form},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/Saelens\%20et\%20al\%20-\%20ABM\%20-\%202003.pdf},
abstract = {
Research in transportation, urban design, and planning has examined
associations between physical environment variables and
individuals' walking and cycling for transport. Constructs,
methods, and findings from these fields can be applied by physical
activity and health researchers to improve understanding of
environmental influences on physical activity. In this review,
neighborhood environment characteristics proposed to be relevant to
walking/cycling for transport are defined, including population
density, connectivity, and land use mix. Neighborhood
comparison and correlational studies with nonmotorized
transport outcomes are considered, with evidence suggesting
that residents from communities with higher density, greater
connectivity, and more land use mix report higher rates of
walking/cycling for utilitarian purposes than low-density,
poorly connected, and single land use neighborhoods. Environmental
variables appear to add to variance accounted for beyond
sociodemographic predictors of walking/cycling for transport.
Implications of the transportation literature for physical
activity and related research are outlined. Future research
directions are detailed for physical activity research to
further examine the impact of neighborhood and other physical
environment factors on physical activity and the potential
interactive effects of psychosocial and environmental
variables. The transportation, urban design, and planning
literatures provide a valuable starting point for
multidisciplinary research on environmental contributions to
physical activity levels in the population.
}
}
@article{Sae04,
author = {Kjartan S{\ae}lensminde},
title = {Cost-benefit analyses of walking and cycling track networks
taking into account insecurity, health effects and external costs
of motorized traffic},
year = 2004,
journal = {Transportation Research A},
volume = 38,
pages = {593--606},
url = {http://www.sustrans.org.uk/webfiles/International/Norway\%20cost-benfit\%20analysis.pdf},
keywords = {finance, pedestrian planning, bicycle planning, active transportation}
}
@article{SalFraSaeKra04,
author = {Jim F.~Sallis and Lawrence D.~Frank and Brian E.~Saelens and
M.~Katherine Kraft},
title = {Active transportation and physical activity: Opportunities
for collaboration on transportation and public health research},
year = 2004,
month = may,
journal = {Transportation Research A},
volume = 38,
number = 4,
pages = {249--268},
keywords = {active transportation, transport planning},
url = {http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/Sallis\%20et\%20al\%20-\%20TR\%20-\%202004.pdf},
abstract = {
Physically inactive lifestyles are a major public health challenge,
and research in the transportation field on influences on the
choice to walk and bike may provide guidance toward solutions.
In the interests of promoting effective collaboration among the
transportation, planning, and health fields, the current paper
was written to fulfill three purposes. The first purpose was to
summarize the transportation and planning studies on the
relation between community design and non-motorized (``active'')
transport and to interpret these studies from a health
perspective. The second purpose was to summarize studies from
the health literature that examine the relation between
physical environmental variables and leisure-time physical
activity that have relevance for transportation research. The
third purpose was to promote more collaboration among
transportation, planning, and health investigators by
identifying opportunities for trans-disciplinary research.
}
}
@article{SalOweFra00,
author = {Jim F.~Sallis and N.~Owen and Lawrence D.~Frank},
title = {Behavioral epidemiology: a systematic framework to classify
phases of research on health promotion and disease prevention},
year = 2000,
journal = {Annals of Behavioral Medicine},
volume = 22,
pages = {294--298},
keywords = {active transportation}
}
@article{SchLin05,
author = {J.~Schilling and L.~Linton},
title = {The public health roots of zoning: in search of active
living's legal genealogy},
year = 2005,
journal = {American Journal of Preventive Medicine},
volume = 28,
number = 2,
pages = {96--104},
keywords = {active transportation, history, urban planning}
}
@article{ZloSch05,
author = {A.I.~Zlot and T.L.~Schmidt},
title = {Relationships among community characteristics and walking and
bicycling for transportation or recreation},
year = 2005,
journal = {American Journal of Health Promotion},
volume = 19,
pages = {315--317},
keywords = {bicycle planning, pedestrian planning, active transportation}
}
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